Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist, better known as the teacher of Alexander the Great. This biography of Aristotle profiles his childhood, life, achievements, contributions and timeline.
 

 

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist, better known as the teacher of Alexander the Great. He was a student of Plato and is considered an important figure in Western Philosophy. Famous for his writings on physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology, he is considered much ahead of his time. His writings constitute the first comprehensive system of Western philosophy which includes views about morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics. This system became the supporting pillar of both Islamic and Christian scholastic thought. It is even said that he was perhaps the last man who had the knowledge of all the known fields at that time. His intellectual knowledge ranged from every known field of science and arts of that era. His writing includes work in physics, chemistry, biology, zoology, botany, psychology, political theory, logic, metaphysics, history, literary theory and rhetoric. One of his greatest achievements was formulating a finished system also known as Aristotelian syllogistic. His other significant contribution was towards the development of zoology. It is true that Aristotle’s zoology is now obsolete but his work and contribution was unchallenged till the 19th century. His contribution towards almost all subjects on earth and its influence makes him one of the most famous and top personalities of all time. 

Childhood & Early Life

• Aristotle was born in Stagira, Chalcidice, which is approximately 55km east of Thessaloniki, in 384 B.C. His father Nicomachus named him Aristole, which means “the best purpose”. His father served as a personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon.
• Though not much information is available about his childhood, sources throw light on the fact that he spent time in the Macedonian palace and from here he connected with the Macedonian monarchy.
• Being a physician’s son, he was inspired to his father’s scientific work but didn’t show much interest in medicine.
• When he turned 18, he shifted to Athens to pursue his education at Plato’s Academy. He left Athens somewhere in 348-347 B.C, spending almost 20 years in the city.
• The traditional stories say that he left Athens as he was displeased with the Academy’s direction when Plato's nephew Speusippus took over the control of the academy after Plato’s death but it is also said that he feared anti-Macedonian sentiments and must have left before the death of Plato.
• Thereafter, he moved to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor along with his friend Xenocrates. He then travelled to the island of Lesbos accompanied by Theophrastus where they did in-depth analysis of zoology and botany of the island.
• In 343 B.C after the death of Hermias, Philip II of Macedon invited him to become tutor of his son, Alexander.

Career

• Aristole became the head of royal academy of Marcedon. Here he became a tutor not only to Alexander but gave lessons to two other future kings - Cassander and Ptolemy - as well. In his role as tutor to Alexander, he encouraged him to conquer east.
• In 335 B.C he returned to Athens where he established his own school named Lyceum. For next twelve years he taught various courses at his school.
• There came a time when the relationship of Alexander and Aristotle became estranged. This was probably due to Alexander’s relationship with Persia. Though there is little evidence, yet many believed that Aristotle played a role in Alexander’s death.
• After Alexander’s death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens flared. In 322 B.C Eurymedon the Hierophant castigated him for not holding the gods in honor and Aristotle fled to Chalcis, his mother’s family estate.

Thoughts & Contributions

• Aristotle is believed to have put together his thoughts during 335-323 B.C. He wrote a number of dialogues in this period but unfortunately only fragments of these pieces have survived which are in the form of treatise. These were not intended for wide publication and were rather meant to be used for lectures to students. Poetics, Metaphysics, Politics, Physics, De Anima and Nicomachean Ethics are considered to be his most important treatise.
• He not only studied almost every subject but also made noteworthy contributions to many of them. Under physical science, Aristotle studied and wrote on astronomy, anatomy, embryology, geology, geography, meteorology, zoology and physics while in philosophy, he wrote on ethics, aesthetics government, politics, metaphysics, economics, rhetoric, psychology and theology. In addition to all the above, he also studied literature, poetry and customs of various countries.
• Aristotle studied and wrote on numerous subjects and topics but unfortunately only one third of his original writings survived. The lost writings include poetry, letters, dialogues and essays all written in Platonic manner. Most of his literary works are known to the world by the writing of Diogenes Laertius and others.
• He has been given credit for being the earliest one to study formal logic.

Contributions to Philosophy

• Just like his teacher Plato, his philosophy also aims at universe but his ontology finds the universal in particular things, thus his epistemology is based on the study of specific phenomena and it rises to the knowledge of essence.
• He also discussed how information can be drawn about objects through deduction and inferences. It was his theory of deduction that was shaped into “Syllogism” by modern philosophers. The pairs of propositions were termed as “Contraries” by him. Syllogism is a logical argument in which the inference of the conclusion is drawn from two or more other premises of a certain form. This was explained by him in his work “Prior Analytics” where he defined the main components of reasoning through exclusive and inclusive relationships. These were in later years shown through Venn Diagrams.
• His philosophy not just provided us with a system of reasoning but it was also related to ethics. He had described a “moral code of conduct” what he referred to as “good living” in Nichomachean Ethics.
• He also talked about Practical Philosophy where he considered ethics to be a part of practical rather than theoretical study. His work titled “Politics”, threw light on the city. According to him city is a natural community. “Man is by nature a political animal” is what was stated by him.
• He has been given credit for being the earliest one to study formal logic. The famous philosopher Kant said in his the Critique of Pure Reason that Aristotle’s theory of logic formed the basis of deductive inference.

Contributions to Science

• Though he can’t be termed as a scientist by today’s definition but science was of one of the spheres that he extensively researched and studied especially during his stay at Lyceum. His belief was that interaction with physical objects helps in gaining knowledge.
• He also conducted research in biology. He classified animals into species on the basis of blood. Animals with red blood were majorly vertebrates and bloodless were termed as cephalopods. There was relative inaccuracy in this hypothesis yet was regarded as the standard system for many years.
• He closely examined marine biology as well. He closely examined the anatomy of marine beings through dissection. It is interesting to note here that unlike his biological classifications, his observations on marine life are quite accurate.
• His treatise “Meteorology” provides evidence that he also studied earth sciences. By meteorology, he simply didn’t simply mean the study of weather. It also included extensive study about water cycle, natural disasters, astrological events etc.

Contributions to Psychology

• Many scholars consider Aristotle as the true father of psychology, since he is responsible for the theoretical and philosophical framework that contributed to psychology's earliest beginnings.
• His book, De Anima (On the Soul), is also considered as the first book on psychology.
• He was concerned with the relation between the psychological processes and the underlying physiological phenomenon.
• He suggested that the body and the mind exist as facets of the same being, and the mind is simply one of the body's functions.
• He postulated that intellect consists of two parts: passive intellect and active intellect.
• According to him music, epic poetry, comedy, tragedy etc were imitative and varied in imitation by medium, manner or object. His belief was that imitation was a natural part of humans and served as one of the main advantages of mankind over animals.

Major Works

• Aristotle wrote around 200 works and most of them were in the form of notes and drafts. These works comprise of dialogues, records of scientific observations and systematic works. These works were looked after by his student Theophrastus and then Neleus
• His major works include Rhetoric, Eudemus (On the Soul), on philosophy, on Alexander, on Sophistes, on justice, on wealth, on prayer and on education.
• Poetics, Metaphysics, Politics, Physics, De Anima and Nicomachean Ethics are considered to be his most important treatise.
• Aristotle’s work “Poetics” comprised of two books - one was on tragedy and the other on comedy.

Personal Life & Legacy

• During his stay in Asia Minor, Aristotle married Pythias, who is said to be the niece or adoptive daughter of Hermias. A daughter was born to the couple whom they named Pythias.
• After the death of his wife Pythias, he tied the knot again with Herpyllis of Stageira who bore him a son, whom he named after his father, Nicomachus.
• According to the Suda (a 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean world), Aristotle had an erotic relationship with Palaephatus.
• He breathed his last in 322 B.C in Euboea due to natural causes. He named Antipater (his student) as the chief executor. He wrote a will in which he desired to be buried next to his wife.

Trivia

• More than 2300 years have passed yet Aristotle remains to be one of the most influential people ever born. His contribution can be seen in almost every field of human knowledge that then existed. He has also been the founder of many new fields.
• He was the one who founded formal logic and was also a pioneer in the study of zoology.
• Theophrastus, his successor at Lyceum, wrote a number of books on botany which were considered the basis of botany till middle ages. Few names of plants mentioned by him still survived to modern times. From a modest beginning, Lyceum grew to be a Peripatetic school. The other notable students from his Lyceum were Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, and Nicomachus.
• His influence on Alexander cannot be ignored. It was because of his influence on Alexander that he used to carry large group of botanists, zoologists and researchers along with him on his expeditions.
• Aristotle also influenced Byzantine scholars, Islamic theologians, and Western Christian theologians, leaving future scientists, philosophers and thinkers indebted.
• He was also a collector of proverbs, riddles and folklore and his school especially studied riddles of Delphic Oracle and the fables of Aesop.

Top 10 Facts You Did Not Know About Aristotle

• He is credited to be the first genuine scientist in history by the Encyclopædia Britannica.
• Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and was revered as "The First Teacher".
• Aristotle has been accused of misogyny and sexism by scholars of feminist metaphysics.
• It is believed that ‘The Nicomachen Ethics’, a compilation of Aristotle’s lecture notes, is named after his son who died young in a battle.
• He was a geocentrist who believed that the earth is the centre of the universe.
• He gave more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day.
• Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of birds, mammals and fishes, and his classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the 19th century.
• In his treatise ‘On the Soul’, he proposed three kinds of souls: the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul.
• Aristotle is considered to be the founder of formal logic.
• He mentored several brilliant young minds, many of whom including Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus went on to become great thinkers in their own rights.

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Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth President of the United States. Read this brief biography and timeline to find more on his life and childhood.

Turn the pages of America’s political history, and you are sure to find one man who clearly outshines all others and manages to attract the attention and interest of all, till date, - Abraham Lincoln! Nicknamed ‘Honest Abe’ or ‘Father Abraham’, Lincoln was, by far, one of the most powerful and greatest Presidents’ that America has ever witnessed. Rising from a modest and humble beginning, it was his sheer determination and honest effort that led him to the nation’s highest office. An astute politician and proficient lawyer, he played a vital role in unification of the states and led from the front for the cause of abolishing slavery from the country, eventually giving people equal rights, irrespective of caste, color or creed. He not only envisioned but actually brought to the forefront a truly democratic government which was led by the concept of ‘by the people, of the people and for the people’. What’s more, Lincoln led the country when it faced its greatest constitutional, military and moral crises. He not only turned up victorious but also was effective in strengthening the national government and modernizing the economy. He was a saviour of the Union and an emancipator for the slaves. However, just as astonishing was his rise to the top-notch position and his eventual governance, his death was equally bewildering as he became the first U.S President ever to be assassinated. Though in his life Abraham Lincoln has been felicitated with no awards and honors, as there did not exist any awards then, he has till date retained a spot in the Top Three Presidents since 1940s. As for the presidential ranking polls conducted since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls. 

Childhood & Early Life

• Born to Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Lincoln, in a log-cabin in Hardin County Kentucky, Abraham Lincoln was the second of the three children of the couple. He had an elder sister Sarah and a younger brother Thomas who died in infancy.
• Senior Lincoln was a hardworking man. Through his relentless efforts, he became one the richest men in the country. He was respected and honoured by one and all. However, the blissfulness did not last long as Thomas Lincoln lost all what he had, which led to the family shifting base to the present Spencer County, Indiana.
• Religiously, the Lincolns attended Separate Baptists church and had opposing views regarding alcohol, dancing and slavery. They completely believed in restrictive moral standards.
• In 1818, tragedy struck the family as Nancy Lincoln left for the heavenly abode, after suffering from milk sickness. The death of his mother had devastating effect on young Lincoln who grew alienated from his father. However, the gap was abridged by his stepmother, Sarah Bush Johnston whom he grew close to.
• Billed as lazy and indolent by most due to his dislike for the hard labor associated with frontier life, Lincoln wronged all as he grew up to be responsible and dedicated. He completed all the chores expected of a boy from a household and became an adept axe-man in his work, building rail fences. He also dutifully submitted all his earning to his father.
• As far as his education is concerned, Lincoln made extraordinary efforts to attain knowledge. Though both his parents were illiterate and unschooled, they encouraged Lincoln to read and write, especially his stepmom Sarah. It is estimated that all through his life Lincoln did not have not more than 18 months of formal education.
• Since there was not much scope of formal education in the Indiana wilderness, he walked for miles at stretch to borrow a book. He was an avid reader and had read all the then popular books several times, including the Bible. Thus, the knowledge and wisdom that Lincoln possessed was mostly self-taught.
• The family shifted base to Coles County, Illinois in 1831, after fearing milk sickness. At the age of 22, Lincoln set off on his own. His first stop was in a village of New Salem in Sangamon County, where he took up a job of transferring goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi riversAdded By Anonymous
• Abraham Lincolns mother, Nancy Hanks Lincoln, died of milk disease on October 5, 1818. She was buried in a grave which was located just behind the family cabin

Formative Years

• In 1832, Lincoln shifted to New Orleans, where, along with a friend, he bought a small general store. However, since the venture did not turn out to be profitable, he sold his shares and instead, tried his hand at politics. He started campaigning for a seat at the Illinois General Assembly.
• Though Lincoln had gained popularity through his skilled storytelling ability, his lack of proper formal education, money and powerful friends lead to his loss. Meanwhile, while taking part in the assembly, Lincoln also served in the Black Hawk War as a captain in the Illinois Militia.
• After working as a postmaster and county surveyor, Lincoln’s gave in to his wish to become a lawyer. He started reading law books to equip himself with the knowledge required in the field. Lincoln’s social skills and antics at story-telling were honed during this phase of life.
• In 1834, his second campaign turned out to be successful as he won election to the state legislature and ran as a Whig.
• In 1836, Lincoln moved to Springfield Illinois where he enrolled himself to the bar and started practicing law under John T. Stuart.
• Lincoln’s reputation as an able and efficient lawyer grew up leaps and bounds. He began known for his tough and challenging cross-examinations and closing arguments. Over the years, Lincoln worked with a number of professional lawyers including Stephen T. Logan and William Herndon.
• Lincoln’s political career was progressing steadily as well. In his four years of successive term at the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative, he was known for voicing against the perils of slavery and abolitionism. He regularly spoke for economic modernization in various sectors including banking.
• Rising popularity and great work earned Lincoln a seat at the U.S. House of Representative in 1846, where he served a two-year term. A true Whig supporter, he stood for his party beliefs and participated in all votes. He even made speeches that stressed on abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia.
• As far as foreign and military policies are concerned, Lincoln was heavily against Mexican-American War and President Polk and instead supported the Wilmot Proviso. His stand against the President earned him negative publicity as Lincoln lost political support from not only his district, but even earned the nickname ‘spotty Lincoln’.
• In the 1848 presidential elections, Lincoln changed his preference as he shifted to the General Zachary Taylor camp for the Whig nomination. Though Taylor won the elections, Lincoln lost to Justin Butterfield for the office of the Commissioner of the General Land Office. Instead, he was offered a position of a secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory. He refused the same to resume his law practice.
• Lincoln’s career as a lawyer was steadily growing as was his reputation and status. He even appeared before the Supreme Court of the United States. Out of his 175 appearances at the Illinois Supreme Court, 51 times he stood as a sole counsellor out of which he won on 31 occasions. His client list included big names from the country.

Work on Anti-Slavery

• While the northern states of US had banned slavery and were against suppression of people belonging to the lower class or caste, the southern states and the newer territories in the West still did not think of same as morally unethical. As such, to cast a similar influence, Lincoln switched back to his political career by the 1850s and strongly opposed the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
• According to the Act, Douglas had permitted the settlers to determine whether or not they wanted to allow slavery in the new territory. He even argued that the national Congress had no role to play in the matter that he adjudged as only locally important.
• Lincoln’s stand against slavery was prominently visible in his ‘Peoria speech’ which he gave on October 16, 1854. According to it, he strongly hated slavery due to the monstrous injustice that it represented and also the deprival of equality of rights among men.
• Lincoln ran for the seat at the US Senate from Illinois in 1854. Though he was comfortably leading ahead of others in the first six rounds, it was his strong opposition for the Kansas–Nebraska Act that lead to his downfall as there was a split amongst the Whigs.
• It was his take on anti-slavery along with an appeal for ‘Free Soil’, ‘Liberty’ that shaped the new Republican Party. At the 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln was second in the contest to become the party's candidate for vice president.
• In 1858, Lincoln won the state Republic party’s vote which nominated him for the U.S Senate. With this started the series of Lincoln-Douglas debates, which have earned the reputation of being the most popular debates in American history.
• Lincoln and Douglas were tangent apart from each other in terms of their political outlook and physical appearance. While Lincoln professed the seizure of slavery, Douglas promoted his ‘Freeport Doctrine’ according to which local people of a state were free to decide whether or not slavery should be practiced in their state.
• Lincoln’s Republican Party won great many votes, but the Democratic Party bagged a number of seats thus re-electing Douglas to the Senate. Despite the loss, Lincoln was committed towards eradicating slavery from the nation and insisted that the moral foundation of Republic required opposition to slavery.

Campaign for Presidency

• In 1860, a campaign was organized by the political operatives in Illinois which ran in support of Lincoln for the presidency. Interestingly, he surpassed well known candidates such as William Seward of New York and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio at the Republican National Convention in Chicago.
• It was Lincoln’s moderate take on slavery, his support for national infrastructure and the protective tariff which won him the nomination and the subsequent popularity. He beat Southern Democrat Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Northern Democrats and John Bell of the Constitution Party to pave his way to the most coveted political position, garnering a total of 180 electoral votes of the 303.
• Eventually, on November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the United States.
• On March 4, 1861, he assumed the office and became the first ever President from the Republican Party. He selected a strong cabinet, which consisted of many of his political rivals such as William Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates and Edwin Stanton.

Tenure as a President - Succession & Civil War

• Lincoln’s succession into the White House was mostly due to his attaining maximum support from North and West. However, the South was enraged about the result and decided to withdraw itself from the Union and form a separate nation by the name, Confederate States of America.
• The states included in the Confederate States of America were South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Led by Jefferson Davis, these states considered themselves as independent and sovereign.
• Lincoln, however, in his inaugural address in March the following year refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. Though there were attempt to come to a compromise and settlement, Lincoln admonished all such offers and stood by his stand for free-soil and slave-free states.
• As much as Lincoln hated war, he had to live with the same as secessionists were enraged by Lincoln’s orders and instead announced war. What turned worse was that other southern states like North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas also joined the Confederate. They took hold of the Fort Sumter and with this started what is termed as America’s costliest and most deadly conflict.Added By Anonymous
• Lincoln appointed troops to head towards Washington and protect the capital. He withdrew $2 million from the Treasury for war material, called for 75,000 volunteers into military service and suspended the writ of habeas corpus, eventually arresting and imprisoning suspected Confederate sympathizers without a warrant. He also developed strong ties with the border slave states and worked towards keeping the war from being an international conflict.Added By Anonymous
• Lincoln met dead end at all sides. Crushing the opponent seemed difficult and losing to them impossible. As for his stand, while the Copperheads felt that Lincoln was too stubborn on his stand for anti-slavery, Radical Republicans criticized him for moving slowly in abolishing slavery. To add to the woes, Lincoln faced defiance and vilification from generals, his Cabinet, his party, and a majority of the American people. Added By Anonymous
• Lincoln kept a close eye on the progress of the war and was aware of every minute detailing. He regularly consulted with the governors, selected generals and checked military effort. His main priorities with the war were based on two things – Washington should be well defended and an aggressive war should be conducted that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory.
• General McClellan was appointed as the general-in-chief of all the Union armies. Though the first year and a half was difficult due to the defeats and dropping morale and support for re-unification of the nation, the victory at the Antietam gave Lincoln some sort of relief and the idea to reshape the war from ‘uniting the nation’ to ‘abolishing slavery’.
• Meanwhile, midterm elections in 1862 brought bad news for the Lincoln-led government as the public had questioned the ability of the administration and its failure to bring a speedy end to the war. Other factors that acted otherwise for the government was rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, suspension of habeas corpus, the military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market.
• As for the war, Lincoln had understood that the end of the war could be near if a string of victories was put together. They were able to register success at the Charleston harbour and the Battle of Gettsyburg.

Emancipation Proclamation

• Lincoln’s idea for a slave-free nation was not just undermined by the South but by the Constitution as well, which committed the issue to individual states. As such, efforts taken by the Federal government alone could not resolve the issue.
• To put an end to slavery, Lincoln offered the states compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery. He believed that this method would help curtail slavery from within the roots.
• Thus, the Second Confiscation Act was passed on July 1862 according to which the slaves were guaranteed freedom. The main purpose behind this act was to weaken the rebellious war that the opponents had raised. Though Congress was not successful in permanently dissolving slavery, it did show Congress’ support for liberating slaves owned by slave owners.
• Same time, Lincoln came with the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation according to which he stated that all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will be free and liberated.
• The Emancipation Proclamation was official issued on September 22, 1862 and came into practice since January 1, 1863. It declared the slaves in the 10 states not present in the Union as free.
• The next few months were spent preparing the army and the country for emancipation.
• Abolition of slavery became a military objective and to fulfil the same, the Union armies proved tough. The more they advanced towards South, the more slaves were being free and liberated and thus, the objective was nearing accomplishment. In a short time, all the slaves, the number counting up to three million were freed from Confederate territory.
• Once free, the slaves were absorbed by the military as more and more black recruitments seemed to occur. This was the original policy that the government promised to act upon after the issuance of Emancipation Proclamation.
• In 1863, Lincoln and the rest of the Republican and other supporters attained partial victory. Emancipation of slaves had become a national war effort and a democratic government which was of the people, by the people and for the people had evolved. Lincoln commented that the war was an effort to bring in liberty and equality for all.

Re-Election & Re-Construction

• With America’s most deadly conflict, the Civil War, and the unstable economic conditions, Lincoln’s re-election as a President seemed to be doubtful and uncertain. Nevertheless, a master politician that he was, he worked hard to build the strength of the party, fetched support for his policy and fend efforts by Radicals to drop him in the 1864 elections.
• What resulted was a magnanimous win of Lincoln, where he gained support from all states, excepting three, and receiving almost 78% of the Union soldier’s vote. He had managed to bag 212 out of the 233 electoral votes. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln was official sworn in as the President and gave his second inaugural address.
• Post the re-election, Lincoln made reintegration of the Southern states and re-unification of the nation as the number one agenda on his list of to-dos. The administration of the Southern states was re-formed.
• While Tennessee was under the guidance of General Andrew Johnson, General Frederick Steele was the military governor for Arkanas. General Nathaniel P. Banks upheld the plans of restoring the statehood in Louisiana.
• Radical Republican, Salmon P. Chase filled up the chair of the Chief Justice in the Supreme Court. He was chosen, as Lincoln believed that he would uphold the emancipation which until then was applicable to selected states.
• Lincoln increased pressure on the Congress to abolish slavery for good throughout the nation and not in certain states only with the help of a constitutional amendment.
• The proposed constitutional amendment that would pave way for the exit door for slavery was brought before Congress but failed to pass in its first attempt. Later, it became part of the Republican/Unionist platform and eventually was passed in the second meeting. The passed bill was next sent to the state legislatures for ratification, with it becoming the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865.
• The surrender of Lee at the Appomattox Court House in Virginia, in April 1865, official brought an end to the Civil War. His surrender brought forth the surrender of several other rebel armies and leaders.
• The unification of the states eventually led to the consequence for the name of the country ‘United States’. Though the Civil War was the most implacable of the conflicts in America, it did led to the dominance of a singular name, United States for the country by large.
• Lincoln was largely responsible for harbouring the sails of the American political system towards republicanism. At a time when the world focussed on the sanctity of the constitution, Lincoln believed that majority rule had to be restrained with the constitutional checks and limitations.
• Other than this, Lincoln during his term of presidency vetoed four bills, the most important one being the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction which the Radicals had passed. He also was behind the creation of the first U.S. income tax on incomes greater than $800. He was also responsible for the creation of system of national banks by the National Banking Act.

His Assassination

• John Wilkes Booth, the assassinator of Lincoln, had contact with the Confederate secret service. It is believed that Booth initially planned to abduct Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners. However, enraged by Lincolns speech of giving blacks voting rights and thus equal status in the society, Booth resolved to assassinate him.
• The tragic incident occurred during the screening of the play, Our American Cousin at the Ford theatre, which Lincoln went to watch along with First Lady, Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris. His main bodyguard, Ward Hill Lamon was not present and John Parker took to the temporary vacant position.
• Joining the driver for drinks at the interval, Parker left Lincoln unguarded, a setting which Booth capitalized on. He shot Lincoln at point-blank range on his head mortally wounding him. He then stabbed Major Henry Rathbone and escaped.
• Although Lincoln was provided medical help by an Army surgeon, Doctor Charles Leale, who was sitting nearby at the theatre, lack of breath and dropping pulse rate worsened the condition. Lincoln was taken to Peterson House, where he was in coma for nine hours before succumbing to death on April 15, 1865.
• Meanwhile, Booth was tracked down 10 days later on a farm in Virginia, some 70 miles south of Washington, D.C. He put up a brief fight, finally losing out to Sergeant Boston Corbett who killed him.
• Lincoln’s body was wrapped in the flag and escorted to the White House by Union officers. His coffin was first laid in the East Room and later in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21.
• He made his final journey alongside his son in the executive coach for three weeks from the White House to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at various cities across the North for large-scale memorials. People gathered in huge numbers paid their tributes to the great politician ever, through bands, bonfires, hymn singing or silent reverence.
• Lincoln was interred in the Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield, Illinois, U.S. His tomb is called the Lincoln's Tomb. Posthumously, Lincoln was honoured by the United States and a memorial was constructed in Washington D. C with the name Lincoln Memorial. It is by far the most famous and visited memorials.

Personal Life & Legacy

• Lincoln’s first love was Ann Rutledge, whom he had met while relocating to New Orleans. The two shared a cordial relationship which ended abruptly following her death on August 25, 1835 from typhoid and fever.
• He was involved with Mary Owens from Kentucky. Their relationship was blissful and cordial but until a time after which the two separated, as both had developed second thoughts about their relationship.
• Lincoln met Mary Todd in December 1839. Hailing from a wealthy slave-holding family in Lexington, Kentucky, the two shared a great chemistry which led to their engagement the following year. However, Lincoln broke off the engagement only to marry her a year later on November 4, 1842.
• The couple was blessed with four children, all sons. However, barring Robert Todd Lincoln, the eldest, none of the children survived till adulthood. As parents, the Lincoln couple were noted for their lenient attitude. They were extremely fond of children and the death of the little ones caused a strong impact on their personal lives.
• In Lincoln's memory, Lincoln’s sculpture was unveiled at Mount Rushmore. Ford Theatre and Peterson House in Washington and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, located in Springfield, Illinois are other memorials dedicated to this proficient politician.
• To honor him, Lincoln’s portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, penny and $5 bill. What’s more, there are many postage stamps that bear his likeness.

Trivia

• He was the first President to be born out of the thirteen states. Additionally, he was the first president born in Kentucky and the first to wear a beard.
• He was the first US President to be assassinated.
• He is the only president to have a patent to his name. The patent was for a device which assisted in freeing the ships that would get aground in shallow waters.
• Interestingly, unlike other presidents’, he would keep all his important papers, mail, bankbook and so on in his stovepipe hat. Probably, this is the reason why it was called his ‘desk and memorandum book’ and sometimes his ‘filing cabinet’.
• He is responsible for the institution of Thanksgiving Day in United States of America. Until then, the day was celebrated sporadically and on irregular dates. He declared the final Thursday in the month of November as Thanksgiving Day.
• A man with outstanding capability, he earned quite a few nicknames in his life, some of which are ‘Honest Abe’, ‘The Rail Splitter’, ‘The Great Emancipator’, and ‘Father Abraham’.

Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth President of the United States. Read this brief biography and timeline to find more on his life and ...

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Abraham Lincoln

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A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the 11th President of India, is also popularly known as the Missile Man. This biography provides information about his profile and life.

Little did Jainulabdeen and Ashiamma know that their son would grow up to be the first citizen of India. An Indian scientist and administrator, Kalam served as the 11th President of India from 2002 until 2007. One amongst the most respected people of the country, Kalam contributed immensely both as a scientist and as a president. His contribution at the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was immense. He was responsible for numerous projects such as Project Devil and Project Valiant and launch of the Rohini-1, besides developing missiles under the missions Agni and Prithvi. For the same, he was popularly tagged as the “Missile Man of India”. Kalam was honored with great laurels and awards for his work by both the Government of India and other countries. After completing his term as President, Kalam served as a visiting professor in various esteemed institutes and universities of India. 

Childhood & Early Life

• A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was born to Jainulabdeen and Ashiamma on October 15, 1931. He came from a family whose financial conditions weren’t sound enough. As a means to support his family’s meagre income, Kalam took up odd jobs in his childhood but never gave up on his education.
• He graduated from Saint Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli in 1954 but not satisfied with his degree, he left for Madras later next year to study aerospace engineering. He enrolled at the Madras Institute of Technology (MIT).

Career

• After graduating from MIT, Kalam took up the position of chief scientist at the Aeronautical Development Establishment of Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO). However, the profile didn’t appeal Kalam much who shifted to the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) where he was the project director of India's first indigenous Satellite Launch Vehicle.
• His years at the ISRO were the most crucial ones, as they left a lasting impact on him. Kalam lead many projects and turned out to be successful each time.
• In the 1970s, Kalam directed two projects, namely, Project Devil and Project Valiant, which sought to develop ballistic missiles from the technology of the successful SLV programme.
• A milestone was achieved when locally built Rohini-1 was launched into space, using the SLV rocket. Upon watching the raving success of Kalam, the government agreed for initiation of an advanced missile program under his directorship. He played a pivotal role in developing missiles under the missions Agni and Prithvi.
• Kalam was the Chief Executive of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (I.G.M.D.P) which researched in simultaneous development of a quiver of missiles instead of taking planned missiles one by one.
• From 1992 until 1999, Kalam was appointed as the Chief Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister and the Secretary of Defence Research and Development Organisation. It was during this time that Kalam served as the Chief Project Coordinator for Pokhran II nuclear tests, after which he was fondly called the “Missile Man of India”.
• Kalam succeeded K. R. Narayan to serve as the 11th President of India from 2002 until 2007. It was a highly one-sided contest. With his appointment, Kalam became the first scientist and first ever bachelor to occupy the Rastrapati Bhawan.
• During his tenure as a President, Kalam was both appreciated and criticised. The latter was mostly due to his inaction in deciding the fate of 20 mercy petitioners.
• In addition to all the profiles that Dr Kalam held, he authored numerous influential and inspirational books. Amongst all his books, “India 2020” was the widely read and appreciated one. It forecast an action plan which advocated India turning into a knowledge superpower and as one of the developed nations of the world by the year 2020. His other books include, “Ignited Minds”, “Mission India”, “Inspiring Thoughts” and “The Luminous Sparks”.
• In 2011, he launched his mission for the youth of the nation called the “What Can I Give Movement” with the main aim to defeat corruption in India.
• After completing his term as President, Dr Kalam served as visiting professor in various esteemed institutes and universities of India, such as Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad and Indore. He also served as Chancellor of Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram, Aerospace Engineering at Anna University (Chennai), JSS University (Mysore).

Awards & Achievements

• Kalam was the proud recipient of Padma Bhushan, Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna awards from the Government of India. He received the same in the years 1981, 1990 and 1997, respectively.
• In 1997, he was honored by the Government of India with the Indira Gandhi Award for National Integration.
• Later, the next year, he was awarded the Veer Savarkar Award by the Government of India.
• The Alwars Research Centre, Chennai, bestowed Kalam with Ramanujan Award in the year 2000.
• Kalam was honored with the King Charles II Medal by the Royal Society, U.K in 2007.
• The California Institute of Technology, U.S.A, presented Kalam with the International von Karman Wings Award in the year 2009. The same year, he won the Hoover Medal by ASME Foundation, USA.
• The IEEE honored Kalam with IEEE Honorary Membership in 2011.
• Kalam was the proud recipient of honorary doctorates from 40 universities.
• In addition to this, Kalam's 79th birthday was recognised as World Students' Day by United Nations.
• He was nominated for the MTV Youth Icon of the Year award in 2003 and in 2006.

Personal Life

• Dr A.P.J. Kalam remained unmarried throughout his life.
• Dr Abdul Kalam passed away at Bethany Hospital, Shillong, Meghalaya, due to heart failure after having collapsed during a lecture at Indian Institute of Management, Shillong.

Top 10 Facts You Did Not Know About A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

• A.P.J. Abdul Kalam grew up in poverty and distributed newspapers as a young boy to contribute to his father’s meager income.
• He was a protégé of the great Indian scientist Dr. Vikram Sarabhai who guided him and gave him valuable advice.
• He always faced the press following failed tests at ISRO and accepted responsibility for his mistakes but never claimed the credit for any of the massive successes achieved at the organization.
• He was the first bachelor to become the president and occupy Rashtrapati Bhawan.
• Kalam was the third President of India to have been honored with a Bharat Ratna before being elected to the office of President.
• He was known to write his own thank you cards with personalized messages in his own handwriting.
• He was a scholar of Thirukkural (a classic of couplets or Kurals) and was known to quote at least one couplet in most of his speeches.
• He had a keen interest in literature and wrote poems in his native Tamil.
• A practicing Muslim, he was also well versed with Hindu traditions and read the Bhagavad Gita.
• He had more than a million followers on Twitter but followed only 38 people.

A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the 11th President of India, is also popularly known as the Missile Man. This biography provides information about hi...

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English writer A.A. Milne is best known for his children's stories about the adventures of Winnie-the-Pooh.

Synopsis

British author A.A. Milne was born in London, England, on January 18, 1882. After attending the University of Cambridge's Trinity College and writing for the literary magazines Granta and Punch, Milne began a successful career as a novelist, poet and playwright in the 1920s. His best known works are his two collections of children's poetry, When We Were Young and Now We Are Six, and his two books of stories about the lovable bear Winnie-the-Pooh and his animal friends. Milne died on January 31, 1956.

Early Life and Education

A.A. Milne was born Alan Alexander Milne on January 18, 1882, in London, England. He and his two older brothers were raised in London by their parents, Sarah Marie (née Heginbotham) and John Vine Milne, the headmaster of a private school named Henley House.
Milne was educated at Westminster School in London and at the University of Cambridge's Trinity College. While at Cambridge, he studied mathematics and also edited and wrote for the student magazine Granta. Realizing that writing was his true vocation, he moved to London after his graduation in 1903. He began writing for the literary magazine Punch in 1906, and his essays and humorous poetry were published in the magazine through 1914.

Wartime Service and Literary Success

Despite being a pacifist, in 1915, Milne served in World War I, enlisting in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment, and then working in the Royal Corps of Signals. He was discharged in 1919 and settled in London with his wife, Dorothy "Daphne" de Sélincourt (whom he had married in 1913). Their son, Christopher Robin, was born in 1920.
During his military service, Milne had written his first play, a one-act farce titled Wurzel-Flummery. After the war, he achieved success as a playwright. His comedies of the early 1920s, including Mr. Pim Passes By (1921) and The Dover Road (1921), were enthusiastically received by critics and audiences. He also penned a detective novel titled The Red House Mystery, published in 1922. In 1929 he wrote a stage adaptation of Kenneth Grahame's classic children's book The Wind in the Willows, titled Toad of Toad Hall.

'Winnie-the-Pooh' and Other Children's Literature

In 1924, Milne applied his long-time talent for light verse to a collection of children's poems titled When We Were Very Young. This book included poems such as "Buckingham Palace" and "Halfway Down," which were inspired by his 4-year-old son's pastimes. In 1927, Milne wrote a second volume of verse for young readers, titled Now We Are Six.
Milne's greatest and enduring successes, however, were his books Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) and The House at Pooh Corner (1928). These two volumes told the adventures of a young boy named Christopher Robin, after Milne's own son (Christopher Robin Milne), and his animal playmates, who were inspired by the real Christopher Robin's stuffed toys. A bear named Winnie-the-Pooh was the central character, accompanied by fussy Rabbit, gloomy donkey Eeyore, bouncy tiger Tigger, kind kangaroo Kanga and her baby Roo, wise Owl and shy Piglet.
The adventures of Pooh and his friends in the Hundred Acre Wood, illustrated by artist Ernest H. Shepard, were all best-sellers and made Milne a household name.

Later Years

In the 1930s and '40s, A.A. Milne returned to writing for adults, publishing novels, short-story collections and a non-fiction, anti-war book entitled Peace with Honour. He wrote his autobiography, It's Too Late Now, in 1939.
Milne suffered from illness in the early 1950s and died at his home in Hartfield, East Sussex, England, on January 31, 1956. Winnie-the-Pooh and the other characters of the Pooh stories have lived on as iconic figures in children's literature.

English writer A.A. Milne is best known for his children's stories about the adventures of Winnie-the-Pooh. Synopsis British au...

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A. A. Milne

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